More Effective C++
Item 1: Distinguish between pointers and references
- there is no such thing as a null reference.
- A reference must always refer to some object.
- The fact that there is no such thing as a null reference implies that it can be more efficient to use references than to use pointers. That's because there's no need to test the validity of a reference before using it.
- Another important difference between pointers and references is that pointers may be reassigned to refer to different objects. A reference, however, always refers to the object with which it is initialized.
- References, then, are the feature of choice when you know you have something to refer to, when you'll never want to refer to anything else, and when implementing operators whose syntactic requirements make the use of pointers undesirable. In all other cases, stick with pointers.
Item 2: Prefer C++ style casts
- C++ addresses the shortcomings of C-style casts by introducing four new cast operators
- static_cast
- const_cast
- dynamic_cast
- reinterpret_cast
- static_cast
- static_cast has basically the same power and meaning as the general-purpose C-style cast.
- static_cast can't remove constness from an expression, because another new cast, const_cast, is designed specifically to do that.
- const_cast is used to cast away the constness or volatileness of an expression. By using a const_cast, you emphasize (to both humans and compilers) that the only thing you want to change through the cast is the constness or volatileness of something.
- By far the most common use of const_cast is to cast away the constness of an object.
- dynamic_cast is used to perform safe casts down or across an inheritance hierarchy. That is, you use dynamic_cast to cast pointers or references to base class objects into pointers or references to derived or sibling base class objects in such a way that you can determine whether the casts succeeded. Failed casts are indicated by a null pointer (when casting pointers) or an exception (when casting references).
- dynamic_casts are restricted to helping you navigate inheritance hierarchies. They cannot be applied to types lacking virtual functions, , nor can they cast away constness.
- If you want to perform a cast on a type where inheritance is not involved, you probably want a static_cast. To cast constness away, you always want a const_cast.
- reinterpret_cast is used to perform type conversions whose result is nearly always implementation-defined. As a result, reinterpret_casts are rarely portable.
Item 3: Never treat arrays polymorphically
- The issue here is related to the pointer arithmetic. In the pointer arithemtic, the compiler needs to know the exact size of the object that the pointer points to.
- Polymorphism and pointer arithmetic simply don't mix.
- The language specification says the result of deleting an array of derived class objects through a base class pointer is undefined.
- Note that you're unlikely to make the mistake of treating an array polymorphically if you avoid having a concrete class inherit from another concrete class.
Item 4: Avoid gratuitous default constructors
- if a class lacks a default constructor, there are restrictions on how you can use that class.
- The first is the creation of arrays. There is, in general, no way to specify constructor arguments for objects in arrays.
- A general solution to this is to use an array of pointers instead of an array of objects. here are two disadvantages to this approach. First, you have to remember to delete all the objects pointed to by the array. If you forget, you have a resource leak. Second, the total amount of memory you need increases.
- The second problem with classes lacking default constructors is that they are ineligible for use with many template-based container classes. That's because it's a common requirement for such templates that the type used to instantiate the template provide a default constructor. This requirement almost always grows out of the fact that inside the template, an array of the template parameter type is being created.
- Virtual base classes lacking default constructors are a pain to work with. That's because the arguments for virtual base class constructors must be provided by the most derived class of the object being constructed. => ?
Item 5: Be wary of user-defined conversion functions.
- C++ allows compilers to perform implicit conversions between types. In honor of its C heritage, for example, the language allows silent conversions from char to int and from short to double.
- Two kinds of functions allow compilers to perform such conversions: single-argument constructors and implicit type conversion operators.
- A single-argument constructor is a constructor that may be called with only one argument. Such a constructor may declare a single parameter or it may declare multiple parameters, with each parameter after the first having a default value.
- An implicit type conversion operator is simply a member function with a strange-looking name: the word operator followed by a type specification. You aren't allowed to specify a type for the function's return value, because the type of the return value is basically just the name of the function.
class Rational { public: ... operator double() const; };- The fundamental problem is that such functions often end up being called when you neither want nor expect them to be. The result can be incorrect and unintuitive program behavior that is maddeningly difficult to diagnose.
- Compilers would try to find an acceptable sequence of implicit type conversions they could apply to make the call succeed.
- In most cases, the inconvenience of having to call conversion functions explicitly is more than compensated for by the fact that unintended functions can no longer be silently invoked.
- Implicit conversions via single-argument constructors are more difficult to eliminate. Furthermore, the problems these functions cause are in many cases worse than those arising from implicit type conversion operators.
- The easy way is to avail yourself of one of the newest C++ features, the explicit keyword. This feature was introduced specifically to address the problem of implicit type conversion, and its use is about as straightforward as can be. Constructors can be declared explicit, and if they are, compilers are prohibited from invoking them for purposes of implicit type conversion. Explicit conversions are still legal.
- There are complicated rules governing which sequences of implicit type conversions are legitimate and which are not. One of those rules is that no sequence of conversions is allowed to contain more than one user-defined conversion (i.e., a call to a single-argument constructor or an implicit type conversion operator).
- By constructing your classes properly, you can take advantage of this rule so that the object constructions you want to allow are legal, but the implicit conversions you don't want to allow are illegal.
- proxy classes technique.
Item 6: Distinguish between prefix and postfix forms of increment and decrement operators
- There was a syntactic problem, however, and that was that overloaded functions are differentiated on the basis of the parameter types they take, but neither prefix nor postfix increment or decrement takes an argument. To surmount this linguistic pothole, it was decreed that postfix forms take an int argument, and compilers silently pass 0 as that int when those functions are called.
- More important to get used to, however, is this: the prefix and postfix forms of these operators return different types. In particular, prefix forms return a reference, postfix forms return a const object.
- The prefix form of the increment operator is sometimes called "increment and fetch," while the postfix form is often known as "fetch and increment."
- That principle is that postfix increment and decrement should be implemented in terms of their prefix counterparts.
- When dealing with user-defined types, prefix increment should be used whenever possible, because it's inherently more efficient.
- If you've ever wondered if it makes sense to have functions return const objects, now you know: sometimes it does, and postfix increment and decrement are examples.
Item 7: Never overload &&, ||, or ,.
- It you overload the operator && and ||, you are changing the rules of the game quite radically, because you are replacing short-circuit semantics with function call semantics.
- when a function call is made, all parameters must be evaluated, so when calling the functions operator&& and operator||, both parameters are evaluated. There is, in other words, no short circuit.
- the language specification leaves undefined the order of evaluation of parameters to a function call, so there is no way of knowing whether expression1 or expression2 will be evaluated first. This stands in stark contrast to short-circuit evaluation, which always evaluates its arguments in left-to-right order.
- An expression containing a comma is evaluated by first evaluating the part of the expression to the left of the comma, then evaluating the expression to the right of the comma; the result of the overall comma expression is the value of the expression on the right.
- If you write operator, as a non-member function, you'll never be able to guarantee that the left-hand expression is evaluated before the right-hand expression, because both expressions will be passed as arguments in a function call (to operator,).
- That leaves only the possibility of writing operator, as a member function. Even here you can't rely on the left-hand operand to the comma operator being evaluated first, because compilers are not constrained to do things that way.
- Hence, you can't overload the comma operator and also guarantee it will behave the way it's supposed to. It therefore seems imprudent to overload it at all.
Item 8: Understand the different meanings of new and delete
- placement new: There are times when you really want to call a constructor directly. Invoking a constructor on an existing object makes no sense, because constructors initialize objects, and an object can only be initialized given its first value once. But occasionally you have some raw memory that's already been allocated, and you need to construct an object in the memory you have. A special version of operator new called placement new allows you to do it.
- An example of how ploacement new might be used:
class Widget { public: Widget(int widgetSize); ... }; Widget * constructWidgetInBuffer(void *buffer, int widgetSize) { return new (buffer) Widget(widgetSize); }- If we step back from placement new for a moment, we'll see that the relationship between the new operator and operator new, though you want to create an object on the heap, use the new operator. It both allocates memory and calls a constructor for the object. If you only want to allocate memory, call operator new; no constructor will be called. If you want to customize the memory allocation that takes place when heap objects are created, write your own version of operator new and use the new operator; it will automatically invoke your custom version of operator new. If you want to construct an object in memory you've already got a pointer to, use placement new. => ??? 这边有点没有看的太明白。
The new operator calls a function to perform the requisite memory allocation, and you can rewrite or overload that function to change its behavior. The name of the function the new operator calls to allocate memory is operator new.
Operator new is a function that allocates raw memory -- at least conceptually, it's not much different from malloc.The new operator is what you normally use to create an object from the free store().
- One implication of this is that if you want to deal only with raw, uninitialized memory, you should bypass the new and delete operators entirely. Instead, you should call operator new to get the memory and operator delete to return it to the system:
// The following code is the C++ equivalent of caling malloc and free. void *buffer = operator new(20 * sizeof(char)); // allocate enough memory to hold 50 chars operator delete(buffer) // deallocate the memory- If you use placement new to create an object in some memory, you should avoid using the delete operator on that memory. That's because the delete operator calls operator delete to deallocate the memory, but the memory containing the object wasn't allocated by operator new in the first place; placement new just returned the pointer that was passed to it. Who knows where that pointer came from? Instead, you should undo the effect of the constructor by explicitly calling the object's destructor.
Item 9: Use destructors to prevent resource leaks
- local objects are always destroyed when leaving a function, regardless of how that function is exited. (The only exception to this rule is when you call longjmp, and this shortcoming of longjmp is the primary reason why C++ has support for exceptions in the first place.)
- Objects that act like pointers, but do more, are called smart pointers.
- The standard C++ library contains a class template called auto_ptr that does just what we want. Each auto_ptr class takes a pointer to a heap object in its constructor and deletes that object in its destructor.
- use auto_ptr objects instead of raw pointers, and you won't have to worry about heap objects not being deleted, not even when exceptions are thrown.
- By adhering to the rule that resources should be encapsulated inside objects, you can usually avoid resource leaks in the presence of exceptions.
Item 10: Prevent resource leaks in constructors
- C++ destroys only fully constructed objects, and an object isn't fully constructed until its constructor has run to completion.
- partially constructed objects aren't automatically destroyed.
- Because C++ won't clean up after objects that throw exceptions during construction, you must design your constructors so that they clean up after themselves. Often, this involves simply catching all possible exceptions, executing some cleanup code, then rethrowing the exception so it continues to propagate.
- if you replace pointer class members with their corresponding auto_ptr objects, you fortify your constructors against resource leaks in the presence of exceptions, you eliminate the need to manually deallocate resources in destructors, and you allow const member pointers to be handled in the same graceful fashion as non-const pointers.
- Dealing with the possibility of exceptions during construction can be tricky, but auto_ptr (and auto_ptr-like classes) can eliminate most of the drudgery. Their use leaves behind code that's not only easy to understand, it's robust in the face of exceptions, too.
- if a constructor throws an exception, what destructors are run?
- Destructors of all the objects completely created in that scope.
- Does it make any difference if the exception is during the initialization list or the body?
- All completed objects will be destructed. If constructor was never completely called object was never constructed and hence cannot be destructed.
- what about inheritance and members? Presumably all completed constructions get destructed. If only some members are constructed, do only those get destructed? If there is multiple inheritance, do all completed constructors get destructed? Does virtual inheritance change anything?
- All completed constructions do get destructed. Yes, only the completely created objects get destructed.
Item 11: Prevent exceptions from leaving destructors
- There are two situations in which a destructor is called.
- The first is when an object is destroyed under "normal" conditions, e.g., when it goes out of scope or is explicitly deleted.
- The second is when an object is destroyed by the exception-handling mechanism during the stack-unwinding part of exception propagation.
- an exception may or may not be active when a destructor is invoked. Regrettably, there is no way to distinguish between these conditions from inside a destructor. As a result, you must write your destructors under the conservative assumption that an exception is active, because if control leaves a destructor due to an exception while another exception is active, C++ calls the terminate function.
- One way to handle this is to add a try block in the destructor:
Session::~Session() { try { logDestruction(this); } catch (...) {} }- There is a second reason why it's bad practice to allow exceptions to propagate out of destructors. If an exception is thrown from a destructor and is not caught there, that destructor won't run to completion. (It will stop at the point where the exception is thrown.)
Item 12: Understand how throwing an exception differs from passing a parameter or calling a virtual function
- This difference grows out of the fact that when you call a function, control eventually returns to the call site (unless the function fails to return), but when you throw an exception, control does not return to the throw site.
- C++ specifies that an object thrown as an exception is always copied. The reason behind this is that when the control leave the original scopr, the destructor of local varialbes will be called. That's why the local object need be to copied.
- This copying occurs even if the object being thrown is not in danger of being destroyed.
- When an object is copied for use as an exception, the copying is performed by the object's copy constructor. This copy constructor is the one in the class corresponding to the object's static type, not its dynamic type.
- This behavior may not be what you want, but it's consistent with all other cases in which C++ copies objects. Copying is always based on an object's static type (but see Item 25 for a technique that lets you make copies on the basis of an object's dynamic type).
- syntax to rethrow the current exception, because there's no chance that that will change the type of the exception being propagated. Furthermore, it's more efficient, because there's no need to generate a new exception object.
- About all you need to remember is not to throw a pointer to a local object, because that local object will be destroyed when the exception leaves the local object's scope. The catch clause would then be initialized with a pointer to an object that had already been destroyed. This is the behavior the mandatory copying rule is designed to avoid.
- In catch claus, there is no implicit type conversion.
- Two kinds of conversions are applied when matching exceptions to catch clauses.The first is inheritance-based conversions. A catch clause for base class exceptions is allowed to handle exceptions of derived class types, too. The second type of allowed conversion is from a typed to an untyped pointer, so a catch clause taking a const void* pointer will catch an exception of any pointer type.
catch (runtime_error) ... // can catch errors of type catch (runtime_error&) ... // runtime_error, catch (const runtime_error&) ... // range_error, or // overflow_error- The final difference between passing a parameter and propagating an exception is that catch clauses are always tried in the order of their appearance.
Item 13: Catch exceptions by reference
- Catch-by-value gives rise to the specter of the slicing problem, whereby derived class exception objects caught as base class exceptions have their derivedness "sliced off." Such "sliced" objects are base class objects: they lack derived class data members, and when virtual functions are called on them, they resolve to virtual functions of the base class.
- If you catch by reference, you sidestep questions about object deletion that leave you damned if you do and damned if you don't; you avoid slicing exception objects; you retain the ability to catch standard exceptions; and you limit the number of times exception objects need to be copied. So what are you waiting for? Catch exceptions by reference!
Item 14 : Use exception specifications judiciously
- The default behavior for unexpected is to call terminate, and the default behavior for terminate is to call abort, so the default behavior for a program with a violated exception specification is to halt. Local variables in active stack frames are not destroyed, because abort shuts down program execution without performing such cleanup. A violated exception specification is therefore a cataclysmic thing, something that should almost never happen.
- Unfortunately, it's easy to write functions that make this terrible thing occur. Compilers only partially check exception usage for consistency with exception specifications. What they do not check for is a call to a function that might violate the exception specification of the function making the call.
- This is a specific example of a more general problem, namely, that there is no way to know anything about the exceptions thrown by a template's type parameters. We can almost never provide a meaningful exception specification for a template, because templates almost invariably use their type parameter in some way. The conclusion? Templates and exception specifications don't mix.
- If preventing unexpected exceptions isn't practical, you can exploit the fact that C++ allows you to replace unexpected exceptions with exceptions of a different type.
class UnexpectedException {}; // all unexpected exception // objects will be replaced // by objects of this type void convertUnexpected() // function to call if { // an unexpected exception throw UnexpectedException(); // is thrown } // make it happen by replacing the default unexpected function with convertUnexpected: set_unexpected(convertUnexpected);- Another way to translate unexpected exceptions into a well known type is to rely on the fact that if the unexpected function's replacement rethrows the current exception, that exception will be replaced by a new exception of the standard type bad_exception.
void convertUnexpected() // function to call if { // an unexpected exception throw; // is thrown; just rethrow } // the current exception set_unexpected(convertUnexpected); // install convertUnexpected // as the unexpected // replacement- It's important to keep a balanced view of exception specifications. They provide excellent documentation on the kinds of exceptions a function is expected to throw, and for situations in which violating an exception specification is so dire as to justify immediate program termination, they offer that behavior by default. At the same time, they are only partly checked by compilers and they are easy to violate inadvertently. Furthermore, they can prevent high-level exception handlers from dealing with unexpected exceptions, even when they know how to. That being the case, exception specifications are a tool to be applied judiciously. Before adding them to your functions, consider whether the behavior they impart to your software is really the behavior you want.
Item 15 : Understand the costs of exception handling
- Let us begin with the things you pay for even if you never use any exception-handling features. You pay for the space used by the data structures needed to keep track of which objects are fully constructed (see Item 10), and you pay for the time needed to keep these data structures up to date. These costs are typically quite modest.
- In theory, you don't have a choice about these costs: exceptions are part of C++, compilers have to support them, and that's that.
- A second cost of exception-handling arises from try blocks, and you pay it whenever you use one, i.e., whenever you decide you want to be able to catch exceptions. As a rough estimate, expect your overall code size to increase by 5-10% and your runtime to go up by a similar amount if you use try blocks. This assumes no exceptions are thrown; what we're discussing here is just the cost of having try blocks in your programs. To minimize this cost, you should avoid unnecessary try blocks.
- Compilers tend to generate code for exception specifications much as they do for try blocks, so an exception specification generally incurs about the same cost as a try block.
- Compared to a normal function return, returning from a function by throwing an exception may be as much as three orders of magnitude slower.
- The prudent course of action is to be aware of the costs described in this item, but not to take the numbers very seriously.
- To minimize your exception-related costs, compile without support for exceptions when that is feasible; limit your use of try blocks and exception specifications to those locations where you honestly need them; and throw exceptions only under conditions that are truly exceptional. If you still have performance problems, profile your software (see Item 16) to determine if exception support is a contributing factor. If it is, consider switching to different compilers, ones that provide more efficient implementations of C++'s exception-handling features.
Item 16: Remember the 80-20 rule
- the overall performance of your software is almost always determined by a small part of its constituent code.
- Remember that a profiler can only tell you how a program behaved on a particular run (or set of runs), so if you profile a program using input data that is unrepresentative, you're going to get back a profile that is equally unrepresentative. That, in turn, is likely to lead to you to optimize your software's behavior for uncommon uses, and the overall impact on common uses may even be negative.
- The best way to guard against these kinds of pathological results is to profile your software using as many data sets as possible.
Item 17: Consider using lazy evaluation
- declare the pointer fields mutable, which means they can be modified inside any member function, even inside const member functions.
- The mutable keyword is a relatively recent addition to C++, so it's possible your vendors don't yet support it. If not, you'll need to find another way to convince your compilers to let you modify data members inside const member functions. One workable strategy is the "fake this" approach, whereby you create a pointer-to-non-const that points to the same object as this does. When you want to modify a data member, you access it through the "fake this" pointer. => const_cast<yourObject>(this)
Item 18: Amortize the cost of expected computations
- That's because it's faster to read a big chunk once than to read two or three small chunks at different times. Furthermore, experience has shown that if data in one place is requested, it's quite common to want nearby data, too. This is the infamous locality of reference phenomenon, and systems designers rely on it to justify disk caches, memory caches for both instructions and data, and instruction prefetches.
- Lazy evaluation is a technique for improving the efficiency of programs when you must support operations whose results are not always needed. Over-eager evaluation is a technique for improving the efficiency of programs when you must support operations whose results are almost always needed or whose results are often needed more than once. Both are more difficult to implement than run-of-the-mill eager evaluation, but both can yield significant performance improvements in programs whose behavioral characteristics justify the extra programming effort.
Item 19: Understand the origin of temporary objects
- True temporary objects in C++ are invisible - they don't appear in your source code. They arise whenever a non-heap object is created but not named.
- Such unnamed objects usually arise in one of two situations: when implicit type conversions are applied to make function calls succeed and when functions return objects.
- These conversions occur only when passing objects by value or when passing to a reference-to-const parameter. They do not occur when passing an object to a reference-to-non-const parameter.
- Implicit type conversion for references-to-non-const objects, then, would allow temporary objects to be changed when programmers expected non-temporary objects to be modified. That's why the language prohibits the generation of temporaries for non-const reference parameters. Reference-to-const parameters don't suffer from this problem, because such parameters, by virtue of being const, can't be changed.
- => take a look at the move function and return-by-reference. Looks like they are relevant to this item
Item 20: Facilitate the return value optimization
- It is frequently possible to write functions that return objects in such a way that compilers can eliminate the cost of the temporaries. The trick is to return constructor arguments instead of objects, and you can do it like this:
// an efficient and correct way to implement a // function that returns an object const Rational operator*(const Rational& lhs, const Rational& rhs) { return Rational(lhs.numerator() * rhs.numerator(), lhs.denominator() * rhs.denominator()); }- It even has a name: the return value optimization. In fact, the existence of a name for this optimization may explain why it's so widely available.
Item 21: Overload to avoid implicit type conversions
- Reasonable or not, there are rules to this C++ game, and one of them is that every overloaded operator must take at least one argument of a user-defined type. int isn't a user-defined type, so we can't overload an operator taking only arguments of that type.
- Overloading to avoid temporaries isn't limited to operator functions.
- the folloing code is used to avoid the creation of a temporary object of type UPInt.
const UPInt operator+(const UPInt& lhs, // add UPInt const UPInt& rhs); // and UPInt const UPInt operator+(const UPInt& lhs, // add UPInt int rhs); // and int const UPInt operator+(int lhs, // add int and const UPInt& rhs); // UPInt UPInt upi1, upi2; ... UPInt upi3 = upi1 + upi2; // fine, no temporary for // upi1 or upi2 upi3 = upi1 + 10; // fine, no temporary for // upi1 or 10 upi3 = 10 + upi2; // fine, no temporary for // 10 or upi2
Item 22: Consider using op= instead of stand-alone op
- This one turns out to be a very interesting topic. It involves named object, unnamed objects and compiler optimizations.
- If you don't mind putting all stand-alone operators at global scope, you can use templates to eliminate the need to write the stand-alone functions:
// code 22.1 template<class T> const T operator+(const T& lhs, const T& rhs) { return T(lhs) += rhs; } template<class T> const T operator-(const T& lhs, const T& rhs) { return T(lhs) -= rhs; }- In the above code, we return a unnamed object. Sometimes, we tend to do the following. It looks almost the same, but there is a crutial difference here.
// code 22.2 template<class T> const T operator+(const T& lhs, const T& rhs) { T result(lhs); // copy lhs into result return result += rhs; // add rhs to it and return }- This second template contains a named object, result. The fact that this object is named means that the return value optimization (see Item 20) was, until relatively recently, unavailable for this implementation of operator+. The first implementation has always been eligible for the return value optimization, so the odds may be better that the compilers you use will generate optimized code for it.
Item 23: Consider alternative libraries
- Because different libraries embody different design decisions regarding efficiency, extensibility, portability, type safety, and other issues, you can sometimes significantly improve the efficiency of your software by switching to libraries whose designers gave more weight to performance considerations than to other factors.
Item 24: Understand the costs of virtual functions, multiple inheritance, virtual base classes, and RTTI
- When a virtual function is called, the code executed must correspond to the dynamic type of the object on which the function is invoked; the type of the pointer or reference to the object is immaterial. How can compilers provide this behavior efficiently? Most implementations use virtual tables and virtual table pointers. Virtual tables and virtual table pointers are commonly referred to as vtbls and vptrs, respectively.
- Virtual functions per se are not usually a performance bottleneck.
- The real runtime cost of virtual functions has to do with their interaction with inlining. For all practical purposes, virtual functions aren't inlined. That's because "inline" means "during compilation, replace the call site with the body of the called function," but "virtual" means "wait until runtime to see which function is called."
Item 25: Virtualizing constructors and non-member functions
- Because it creates new objects, it acts much like a constructor, but because it can create different types of objects, we call it a virtual constructor. A virtual constructor is a function that creates different types of objects depending on the input it is given.
- A particular kind of virtual constructor - the virtual copy constructor - is also widely useful.
- A virtual copy constructor returns a pointer to a new copy of the object invoking the function. Because of this behavior, virtual copy constructors are typically given names like copySelf, cloneSelf, or, as shown below, just plain clone.
lass NLComponent { public: // declaration of virtual copy constructor virtual NLComponent * clone() const = 0; ... }; class TextBlock: public NLComponent { public: virtual TextBlock * clone() const // virtual copy { return new TextBlock(*this); } // constructor ... }; class Graphic: public NLComponent { public: virtual Graphic * clone() const // virtual copy { return new Graphic(*this); } // constructor ... };- Notice that the above implementation takes advantage of a relaxation in the rules for virtual function return types that was adopted relatively recently.
- No longer must a derived class's redefinition of a base class's virtual function declare the same return type. Instead, if the function's return type is a pointer (or a reference) to a base class, the derived class's function may return a pointer (or reference) to a class derived from that base class.
- This opens no holes in C++'s type system, and it makes it possible to accurately declare functions such as virtual copy constructors.
- Making non-member functions act virtual. This is also a very interesting topic. In the example below, we dethe operator<< so that its behavior depens on the dynamic type of the argument.
class NLComponent { public: virtual ostream& print(ostream& s) const = 0; ... }; class TextBlock: public NLComponent { public: virtual ostream& print(ostream& s) const; ... }; class Graphic: public NLComponent { public: virtual ostream& print(ostream& s) const; ... }; inline ostream& operator<<(ostream& s, const NLComponent& c) { return c.print(s); }
Item 26: Limiting the number of objects of a class
- Each time an object is instantiated, we know one thing for sure: a constructor will be called. That being the case, the easiest way to prevent objects of a particular class from being created is to declare the constructors of that class private.
- The code blow shows how to make sure there is only one Priter object.
class PrintJob; // forward declaration // see Item E34 class Printer { public: void submitJob(const PrintJob& job); void reset(); void performSelfTest(); ... friend Printer& thePrinter(); private: Printer(); Printer(const Printer& rhs); ... }; Printer& thePrinter() { static Printer p; // the single printer object return p; }- Now if we do not want to put the thePrinter in the global namespace, here is the solution. It is the standard singleton implementation.
class Printer { public: static Printer& thePrinter(); ... private: Printer(); Printer(const Printer& rhs); ... }; Printer& Printer::thePrinter() { static Printer p; return p; } // Clients must now be a bit wordier when they refer to the printer: Printer::thePrinter().reset(); Printer::thePrinter().submitJob(buffer);- Another approach is to move Printer and thePrinter out of the global scope and into a namespace.
- There are two subtleties in the implementation of thePrinter that are worth exploring.
- First, it's important that the single Printer object be static in a function and not in a class. An object that's static in a class is, for all intents and purposes, always constructed (and destructed), even if it's never used. In contrast, an object that's static in a function is created the first time through the function, so if the function is never called, the object is never created.
- Consider for a moment why you'd declare an object to be static. It's usually because you want only a single copy of that object, right? Now consider what inline means. Conceptually, it means compilers should replace each call to the function with a copy of the function body, but for non-member functions, it also means something else. It means the functions in question have internal linkage.
- functions with internal linkage may be duplicated within a program (i.e., the object code for the program may contain more than one copy of each function with internal linkage), and this duplication includes static objects contained within the functions. The result? If you create an inline non-member function containing a local static object, you may end up with more than one copy of the static object in your program! So don't create inline non-member functions that contain local static data.
- Here is a very interesting application of the template. It makes me think of the meta class in Python. The motiviation is that we do not want to repeat the code for counting the number of instance of a class. One of the approaches to use Template. Note that in the code below, we do not have BeingCounted appear in the definition.
template<class BeingCounted> class Counted { public: class TooManyObjects{}; // for throwing exceptions static int objectCount() { return numObjects; } protected: Counted(); Counted(const Counted& rhs); ~Counted() { --numObjects; } private: static int numObjects; static const size_t maxObjects; void init(); // to avoid ctor code }; // duplication template<class BeingCounted> Counted<BeingCounted>::Counted() { init(); } template<class BeingCounted> Counted<BeingCounted>::Counted(const Counted<BeingCounted>&) { init(); } template<class BeingCounted> void Counted<BeingCounted>::init() { if (numObjects >= maxObjects) throw TooManyObjects(); ++numObjects; }- If we want to count the number of instance of a class, we can define that class by inheriting the Counted class. For eample, we can do the following
class Printer: private Counted<Printer> { public: // pseudo-constructors static Printer * makePrinter(); static Printer * makePrinter(const Printer& rhs); ~Printer(); void submitJob(const PrintJob& job); void reset(); void performSelfTest(); ... using Counted<Printer>::objectCount; // see below using Counted<Printer>::TooManyObjects; // see below private: Printer(); Printer(const Printer& rhs); }; // make objectCount public class Printer: private Counted<Printer> { public: ... using Counted<Printer>::objectCount; // make this function // public for clients ... // of Printer }; // or class Printer: private Counted<Printer> { public: ... Counted<Printer>::objectCount; // make objectCount // public in Printer ... };- In order to specify the maxObjects, we can do it in the implementation file.
const size_t Counted<Printer>::maxObjects = 10; const size_t Counted<FileDescriptor>::maxObjects = 16;- What will happen if these authors forget to provide a suitable definition for maxObjects? Simple: they'll get an error during linking, because maxObjects will be undefined. Provided we've adequately documented this requirement for clients of Counted, they can then say "Duh" to themselves and go back and add the requisite initialization.
Item 27: Requiring or prohibiting heap-based objects
- TBD: Requiring heap-based object. => need to review
- The outlook of prohibiting heap-based objects is a bit better. What we can do is to declare operator new and operator delete private. In this way, clients will not be able to use the new operator.
- The bond between operator new and operator delete is stronger than many people think. For information on a rarely-understood aspect of their relationship, turn to the sidebar in my article on counting objects. => Counting Objects in C++ by Scott Meyers
- Interestingly, declaring operator new private often also prevents UPNumber objects from being instantiated as base class parts of heap-based derived class objects. That's because operator new and operator delete are inherited, so if these functions aren't declared public in a derived class, that class inherits the private versions declared in its base(s).
- If the derived class declares an operator new of its own, that function will be called when allocating derived class objects on the heap, and a different way will have to be found to prevent UPNumber base class parts from winding up there. Similarly, the fact that UPNumber's operator new is private has no effect on attempts to allocate objects containing UPNumber objects as members.
Item 28: Smart pointers
- When you use smart pointers in place of C++'s built-in pointers (i.e., dumb pointers), you gain control over the following aspects of pointer behavior
- Construction adn destruction
- Copying and assignement
- Dereferencing
- The template code for smart pointers
template<class T> // template for smart class SmartPtr { // pointer objects public: SmartPtr(T* realPtr = 0); // create a smart ptr to an // obj given a dumb ptr to // it; uninitialized ptrs // default to 0 (null) SmartPtr(const SmartPtr& rhs); // copy a smart ptr ~SmartPtr(); // destroy a smart ptr // make an assignment to a smart ptr SmartPtr& operator=(const SmartPtr& rhs); T* operator->() const; // dereference a smart ptr // to get at a member of // what it points to T& operator*() const; // dereference a smart ptr private: T *pointee; // what the smart ptr }; // points to- => auto_ptr template from the standard C++ library
- One of the difficulties in the smart pointer design is the ownership of the object.
- A flexible solution was adopted for the auto_ptr classes: object ownership is transferred when an auto_ptr is copied or assigned.
- Here is how the copy constructor and assignment operatio are implemented for auto_ptr.
template<class T> auto_ptr<T>::auto_ptr(auto_ptr<T>& rhs) { pointee = rhs.pointee; // transfer ownership of // *pointee to *this rhs.pointee = 0; // rhs no longer owns } // anything template<class T> auto_ptr<T>& auto_ptr<T>::operator=(auto_ptr<T>& rhs) { if (this == &rhs) // do nothing if this return *this; // object is being assigned // to itself delete pointee; // delete currently owned // object pointee = rhs.pointee; // transfer ownership of rhs.pointee = 0; // *pointee from rhs to *this return *this; }- Because object ownership is transferred when auto_ptr's copy constructor is called, passing auto_ptrs by value is often a very bad idea.
- Now let us examine the operator->
// The following statement pt->displayEditDialog(); // is interpreted by compilers as: (pt.operator->())->displayEditDialog();- That means that whatever operator-> returns, it must be legal to apply the member-selection operator (->) to it. There are thus only two things operator-> can return: a dumb pointer to an object or another smart pointer object. Most of the time, you'll want to return an ordinary dumb pointer.
- One of the things we cannot do with smart pointer is find out if a smart pointer is null.
- Implicit conversion to null pointer.
template<class T> class SmartPtr { public: ... operator void*(); // returns 0 if the smart ... // ptr is null, nonzero }; // otherwise- The bottom line is simple: don't provide implicit conversion operators to dumb pointers unless there is a compelling reason to do so.
- Another problem with the smart pointer is how to handle the inheritance. In the example, we have a base class called MusicProduct, and two derived classes Cassette and CD. Now think about it a little while, the SmartPtr<MusicProduct>, SmarPtr<Cassette> and SmartPtr<CD> are three different classes. In other words, we lose the inheritence relationship. This is not good.
- One of the solutions to the above problem is to use member function tempaltes.
template<class T> // template class for smart class SmartPtr { // pointers-to-T objects public: SmartPtr(T* realPtr = 0); T* operator->() const; T& operator*() const; template<class newType> // template function for operator SmartPtr<newType>() // implicit conversion ops. { return SmartPtr<newType>(pointee); } ... };- Implementing smart pointer conversions through member templates has two additional drawbacks. First, support for member templates is rare, so this technique is currently anything but portable. In the future, that will change, but nobody knows just how far in the future that will be. Second, the mechanics of why this works are far from transparent, relying as they do on a detailed understanding of argument-matching rules for function calls, implicit type conversion functions, implicit instantiation of template functions, and the existence of member function templates.
Item 29: Reference Counting
- This is a trick worth knowing: nesting a struct in the private part of a class is a convenient way to give access to the struct to all the members of the class, but to deny access to everybody else (except, of course, friends of the class).
- A first look at the String implementation with reference counting
- The idea - that of sharing a value with other objects until we have to write on our onw copy of the value - has a long and distinguished history in Computer Science, especially in operating systems, where processes are routinely allowed to share pages until they want to modify data on their own copy of a page. The technique is common enough to have a name: copy-on-write. It's a specific example of a more general approach to efficiency, that of lazy evaluation.
- Reference counting is an optimization technique predicated on the assumption that objects will commonly share values \(see also Item 18\). If this assumption fails to hold, reference counting will use more memory than a more conventional implementation and it will execute more code.
- On the other hand, if your objects do tend to have common values, reference counting should save you both time and space. The bigger your object values and the more objects that can simultaneously share values, the more memory you'll save. The more you copy and assign values between objects, the more time you'll save. The more expensive it is to create and destroy a value, the more time you'll save there, too.
- In short, reference counting is most useful for improving efficiency under the following conditions:
- Relatively few values are shared by relatively many objects. Such sharing typically arises through calls to assignment operators and copy constructors. The higher the objects/values ratio, the better the case for reference counting.
- Object values are expensive to create or destroy, or they use lots of memory. Even when this is the case, reference counting still buys you nothing unless these values can be shared by multiple objects.
- Relatively few values are shared by relatively many objects. Such sharing typically arises through calls to assignment operators and copy constructors. The higher the objects/values ratio, the better the case for reference counting.
- Even when the conditions above are satisfied, a design employing reference counting may still be inappropriate. Some data structures (e.g., directed graphs) lead to self-referential or circular dependency structures. Such data structures have a tendency to spawn isolated collections of objects, used by no one, whose reference counts never drop to zero. That's because each object in the unused structure is pointed to by at least one other object in the same structure.
Item 30: Proxy classes
- Objects that stand for other objects are often called proxy objects, and the classes that give rise to proxy objects are often called proxy classes.
- n this example, Array1D is a proxy class. Its instances stand for one-dimensional arrays that, conceptually, do not exist. (The terminology for proxy objects and classes is far from universal; objects of such classes are also sometimes known as surrogates.)
- Compilers choose between const and non-const member functions by looking only at whether the object invoking a function is const. No consideration is given to the context in which a call is made
- There are only three things you can do with a proxy:
- Create it, i.e., specify which string character it stands for.
- Use it as the target of an assignment, in which case you are really making an assignment to the string character it stands for. When used in this way, a proxy represents an lvalue use of the string on which operator[] was invoked.
- Use it in any other way. When used like this, a proxy represents an rvalue use of the string on which operator[] was invoked.
- In general, taking the address of a proxy yields a different type of pointer than does taking the address of a real object.
- shifting from a class that works with real objects to a class that works with proxies often changes the semantics of the class, because proxy objects usually exhibit behavior that is subtly different from that of the real objects they represent. Sometimes this makes proxies a poor choice when designing a system, but in many cases there is little need for the operations that would make the presence of proxies apparent to clients.
class String { // reference-counted strings; public: // see Item 29 for details class CharProxy { // proxies for string chars public: CharProxy(String& str, int index); // creation CharProxy& operator=(const CharProxy& rhs); // lvalue CharProxy& operator=(char c); // uses operator char() const; // rvalue // use private: String& theString; // string this proxy pertains to int charIndex; // char within that string // this proxy stands for }; // continuation of String class const CharProxy operator[](int index) const; // for const Strings CharProxy operator[](int index); // for non-const Strings friend class CharProxy; private: RCPtr<StringValue> value; }; const String::CharProxy String::operator[](int index) const { return CharProxy(const_cast<String&>(*this), index); } String::CharProxy String::operator[](int index) { return CharProxy(*this, index); } String::CharProxy::CharProxy(String& str, int index) : theString(str), charIndex(index) {} String::CharProxy& String::CharProxy::operator=(const CharProxy& rhs) { // if the string is sharing a value with other String objects, // break off a separate copy of the value for this string only if (theString.value->isShared()) { theString.value = new StringValue(theString.value->data); } // now make the assignment: assign the value of the char // represented by rhs to the char represented by *this theString.value->data[charIndex] = rhs.theString.value->data[rhs.charIndex]; return *this; } String::CharProxy& String::CharProxy::operator=(char c) { if (theString.value->isShared()) { theString.value = new StringValue(theString.value->data); } theString.value->data[charIndex] = c; return *this; }
Item 31: Making functions virtual with respect to more than one object
- Note the use of the unnamed namespace to contain the functions used to implement processCollision. Everything in such an unnamed namespace is private to the current translation unit (essentially the current file) - it's just like the functions were declared static at file scope. With the advent of namespaces, however, statics at file scope have been deprecated, so you should accustom yourself to using unnamed namespaces as soon as your compilers support them.
class MyTest: {} namespace { // unnamed namespace, see below // primary collision-processing functions void shipAsteroid(GameObject& spaceShip, GameObject& asteroid); void shipStation(GameObject& spaceShip, GameObject& spaceStation); void asteroidStation(GameObject& asteroid, GameObject& spaceStation); // secondary collision-processing functions that just // implement symmetry: swap the parameters and call a // primary function void asteroidShip(GameObject& asteroid, GameObject& spaceShip) {shipAsteroid(spaceShip, asteroid); } void stationShip(GameObject& spaceStation, GameObject& spaceShip) { shipStation(spaceShip, spaceStation); } void stationAsteroid(GameObject& spaceStation, GameObject& asteroid) { asteroidStation(asteroid, spaceStation); } typedef void (*HitFunctionPtr)(GameObject&, GameObject&); typedef map< pair<string,string>, HitFunctionPtr > HitMap; pair<string,string> makeStringPair(const char *s1, const char *s2); HitMap * initializeCollisionMap(); HitFunctionPtr lookup(const string& class1, const string& class2); } // end namespace void processCollision(GameObject& object1, GameObject& object2) { HitFunctionPtr phf = lookup(typeid(object1).name(), typeid(object2).name()); if (phf) phf(object1, object2); else throw UnknownCollision(object1, object2); } class CollisionMap { public: typedef void (*HitFunctionPtr)(GameObject&, GameObject&); void addEntry(const string& type1, const string& type2, HitFunctionPtr collisionFunction, bool symmetric = true); // see below void removeEntry(const string& type1, const string& type2); HitFunctionPtr lookup(const string& type1, const string& type2); // this function returns a reference to the one and only static CollisionMap& theCollisionMap(); private: // these functions are private to prevent the creation CollisionMap(); CollisionMap(const CollisionMap&); }; class RegisterCollisionFunction { public: RegisterCollisionFunction( const string& type1, const string& type2, CollisionMap::HitFunctionPtr collisionFunction, bool symmetric = true) { CollisionMap::theCollisionMap().addEntry(type1, type2, collisionFunction, symmetric); } };
Item 32: Program in the future tense
Item 33: Make non-leaf classes abstract
- Still, the general rule remains: non-leaf classes should be abstract. You may need to bend the rule when working with outside libraries, but in code over which you have control, adherence to it will yield dividends in the form of increased reliability, robustness, comprehensibility, and extensibility throughout your software.
Item 34: Understand how to combine C++ and C in the same program
- there are four other things you need to consider: name mangling, initialization of statics, dynamic memory allocation, and data structure compatibility
- To suppress name mangling, use C++'s extern "C" directive
- you need to deal with the fact that in C++, lots of code can get executed before and after main. In particular, the constructors of static class objects and objects at global, namespace, and file scope are usually called before the body of main is executed. This process is known as static initialization (see Item E47).
- If you want to mix C++ and C in the same program, remember the following simple guidelines:
- Make sure the C++ and C compilers produce compatible object files.
- Declare functions to be used by both languages extern "C".
- If at all possible, write main in C++.
- Always use delete with memory from new; always use free with memory from malloc.
- Limit what you pass between the two languages to data structures that compile under C; the C++ version of structs may contain non-virtual member functions.
Item 35: Familiarize yourself with °the language standard.
- The STL is based on three fundamental concepts: containers, iterators, and algorithms.
